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Nine hundred years ago, on either December 13th or 14th, 1124, Pope Callixtus II, whose original name was Guido, Count of Burgundy, passed away in Rome. Guido had ascended to the Archbishopric of Vienne in 1088, situated in southern France. Notably, in September 1112, he convened a significant gathering of French bishops in Vienne. This assembly condemned as heretical the privilege of investiture granted by Pope Paschal II to Emperor Henry V, leading to the excommunication of the emperor. This event unfolded amidst the “Investiture Controversy,” a period characterized by the Church’s efforts to prevent the appointment of bishops and the exercise of their jurisdiction from being controlled by civil authorities, which were primarily guided by political and financial considerations rather than pastoral reasons.
Callixtus was elected to the Chair of Peter on February 2, 1119, at Cluny.
The old Archbishop of Vienne on the Rhône was a skilled and patient negotiator. In a period of profound disputes between shepherds and sovereigns, Callixtus II did everything possible to obtain guarantees of independence for the Church. The Concordat of Worms [1122] was the decisive result, which in many other areas succeeded in restoring peace. To give even greater weight to the measures already taken, Callixtus II convened the first Lateran Council [1123]. He then worked to unite his brothers in the episcopate for the protection of the rights of the Church and, on the other hand, for disciplinary reforms that were then necessary.[1]
The phrase “Ego Nicolaus primicerius scholæ cantorum laudo et confirmo”, translating to “I, Nicholas, chief of the school of singers, praise and confirm,”[2] appears after the signature of the last cardinal deacon in the decree of the election of Callixtus II, highlighting the pivotal role of the primicerius, the Director of the Schola Cantorum of Rome, during the conclave. Established primarily for papal ceremonies, the Schola Cantorum Romana was reorganized by Pope St. Gregory the Great († 604) to ensure the excellence of psalmody and liturgical hymns. Under Gregory’s patronage, the school received generous endowments, including lands and two specially constructed houses—one near the Vatican and the other near the Lateran—in a monastery attached to the oratory of St. Stephen de Schola Cantorum near the Lateran Baptistery.
Boys showing potential for singing from various Western European countries were admitted to the Schola Cantorum. Here, they immersed themselves in the study of music and classical culture, with the opportunity to become cubicularii of the Papal Chamber, with immediate elevation for those from noble backgrounds. Exceptional individuals progressed to receive minor orders (ostiary, lectorate, exorcist, and acolyte), participating in solemn religious ceremonies and significant civic events.
The Schola Cantorum was governed by four subdeacons known as parafonisti, or choir masters. This group included the primicerius or prior scholæ, who oversaw all aspects related to singing, reading during liturgical celebrations, and the behavior of the lower Roman clergy. Additionally, there were the secundicerius, the tertius, and the quartus scholæ, also known as the archiparaphonista. Together, they played a crucial role in nurturing excellence in sacred music.
During the reign of Pope Boniface VIII († 1303), the Schola Cantorum Romana reached its peak of artistic brilliance. However, its fortunes declined rapidly following the relocation of the papal court to Avignon. This decline reached its nadir under Pope Urban V († 1370), who, upon temporarily returning to Rome, dissolved the Schola Cantorum with the Bull of June 13, 1370. He transferred its privileges and resources to the Lateran Basilica, the Cathedral of Rome. Subsequently, upon the papal return to Rome under Gregory XI († 1378), the title of primicerius transitioned to maestro di cappella.
The schola cantorum of the Basilica of Santa Maria in Cosmedin in Rome stands as an architectural and liturgical marvel from the time of Callixtus II. The pope entrusted the restoration of this basilica to Cardinal Alfano of Lima († 1125), his chamberlain, and the generous donor of the splendid pavement of the church and the episcopal throne.
The schola cantorum, serving as a designated space for singers, typically positioned before the main altar and demarcated by a marble enclosure, is evident in several ancient basilicas in Rome, including San Clemente from 1118 (which Alfano may have been inspired by), Santi Giovanni e Paolo, San Saba, Santa Petronilla, San Sebastiano fuori le Mura, and Santo Stefano a Via Latina.
The ninth centenary of Callixtus II’s passing prompts reflection on the enduring legacy of the schola cantorum. Whether it’s the designated space for singers or the singers themselves, the schola cantorum represents a cherished ecclesiastical heritage, epitomizing the universality and timelessness of Gregorian chant. While some may view these traditions as antiquated and restrictive, it’s crucial to recognize their enduring value in preserving the rich tapestry of liturgical music. As Benedict XVI eloquently stated,
Yet we must always ask ourselves anew: who or what is the authentic subject of the liturgy? The answer is simple: the Church. It is not the individual person or group which is celebrating the liturgy, but is first and foremost God’s action through the Church which has her own history, her rich tradition, and her creativity.[3]
[1] John Paul II, Speech, May 7, 1992; our translation.
[2] J.P. Migne, Patrologia Latina, vol. 163, Paris 1854, col. 1099.
[3] Letter to the Grand Chancellor of the Pontifical Institute of Sacred Music on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of its foundation,May 13, 2011.
