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Above: modern Nicaea.
Today marks the 1700th anniversary of the first Ecumenical Council—the Council of Nicaea (now İznik, Turkey), convened in 325. This historic gathering took place just a few years after Constantine’s Edict of Milan in 313, which granted the Church freedom of worship. Summoned by Emperor Constantine on May 20 of that year, approximately three hundred bishops assembled at the imperial palace to deliberate on fundamental issues of faith.
At the heart of this monumental council was the Arian controversy. The Arian heresy, which questioned the divinity of Christ, was formally addressed and condemned. The Council decisively affirmed in its Creed that the Son of God is “begotten, not made, of the same substance (homoousios) as the Father.”[1]
Originally, the Nicene Creed was a hymn of profession of faith, performed before Baptism. It was only later integrated into the Mass, beginning in the Byzantine, Mozarabic, and Gallican rites, before eventually being adopted in the Roman rite.
Around 515, the Patriarch of Constantinople ordered that the Creed be recited by everyone before beginning the prex eucharistica. The novelty quickly gained favor throughout the East, to the point that Emperor Justinian II sanctioned it as law in 568.[2]
From the East, the custom of reciting or singing the Creed moved westward. In Spain, the Third Council of Toledo in 589 decreed that the Creed should be recited at Mass before the Pater noster, as preparation for Communion. In the Frankish-Carolingian kingdom, the Council of Aachen in 798 placed the Creed directly after the Gospel, a practice that rapidly spread from the Palatine Chapel to all of Gaul. Finally, on February 14, 1014, when St. Henry II († 1024) was crowned Holy Roman emperor by Pope Benedict VIII († 1024), this custom was introduced in Rome as well.
Initially reserved for solemn celebrations, the recitation of the Creed was gradually extended to all Sundays and the most significant feast days.
In the Mass, the formulation adopted is the one found in the acts of the Council of Chalcedon (431), which is the dogmatic synthesis of the previous Councils of Nicaea (325) and Constantinople (381). Hence its designation as the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed.[3]
Over time, numerous melodies were composed for the Creed, though the Kyriale, the liturgical book containing the unchanging parts of the Mass in Gregorian chant, includes only six.
Of the six melodies in the Kyriale Romanum, the oldest is that of Creed I, which serves as the basis for Creed II, V, and VI. The melodies of Creed IV and III are later, from the post-classical period, respectively from the 15th and 17th centuries. Thus, if we exclude the melodies of Creed IV and III, the only remaining ‘authentic’ melody is that of Creed I.[4]
Creed III, from the 17th century, is featured in the Missa VIII “De angelis.”
Beyond the Gregorian repertoire, many composers have written standalone versions of the Creed. Among them are Fago († 1745) twice, Vivaldi († 1741) twice, Zelenka († 1745) three times, Bach († 1750), Leo († 1744), Galuppi († 1785) twice, Martini († 1784), Cherubini († 1842), Donizetti († 1848) five times, Rossini († 1868), Elgar († 1934), and Stravinsky († 1971), to name just a few.
Among these compositions, Antonio Vivaldi’s Credo in E Minor, RV 591, stands out as particularly significant work. Likely composed around 1715, this piece for choir, organ, and strings is one of his most powerful and captivating creations.
The composition consists of four movements. The first, Allegro, is a vigorous choral declaration of faith, unexpectedly set in a minor key. The second movement, Adagio, is the Et incarnatus est, with striking harmonic progressions (especially et homo factus est) and dramatic pauses, inviting deep contemplation. The third movement, Largo, is the Crucifixus, one of the most profound sacred pieces ever written. Its restrained and mysterious polyphony evokes a mournful, almost funereal atmosphere, with chromatic inflections reminiscent of the A minor prelude from Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier. The Credo concludes with a radiant Allegro, which revisits the opening theme, a hallmark of Vivaldi’s style, while expanding it with a majestic and intricate fugue that elevates the entire piece (Et vitam venturi saeculi. Amen).
This masterwork was performed in the Vatican’s Paul VI Hall on May 5, 2011. At the conclusion of the concert, Pope Benedict XVI made three remarks:
First of all, an anomalous factor in Vivaldi’s vocal production: there are no soloists — there is only the choir. In this way Vivaldi wished to express the ‘we’ of the faith. The ‘Credo’ is the ‘we’ of the Church which sings her faith, in space and in time, as a community of believers. When I say ‘credo’ [“I believe”], I do so inserted into the ‘we’ of the community. I would then like to point out the two splendid central movements: Et incarnatus est and Crucifixus. Vivaldi, as was the practice, dwells on the moment when God, who seemed remote, makes himself close, is incarnate and gives himself on the Cross. Here the repetition of words, the continuous modulations, convey the profound meaning of wonder before this Mystery and invite us to meditation and to prayer.[5]
Benedict XVI’s final reflection underscores Vivaldi’s deep spirituality:
Carlo Goldoni [† 1793], a great exponent of the Venetian theatre, noted at his first meeting with Vivaldi: ‘I found him surrounded with music and with the Breviary in his hand’. Vivaldi was a priest and his music sprang from his faith’.[6]
In conclusion, the Council of Nicaea in 325 not only shaped Christian doctrine but also left an enduring mark on liturgy and sacred music. The Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, born from that great ecclesial assembly, remains a cornerstone of Christian belief and has inspired countless musical compositions over the centuries. Works like Vivaldi’s Credo in E Minor illustrate how art can powerfully express the mysteries of faith, creating a timeless dialogue between tradition and the human spirit.
[1] Denzinger-Schönmetzer, Enchiridion Symbolorum definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum, 125.
[2] A. Turco, Il canto gregoriano, Corso fondamentale, Rome 1996, p. 55; our translation.
[3] V. Donella, Musica e liturgia: indagini e riflessioni musicologiche, Bergamo 1991, p. 195; our translation.
[4] A. Turco, ibidem, p. 56; our translation.
[5] Benedict XVI, Address at the Concert offered by the President of the Italian Republic, May 5, 2011.
[6] Benedict XVI, ibidem.